Leviticus Rabbah 9:9

Centuries: 5th CE

Languages: Hebrew, Aramaic

Category: Jewish

Literary Genre: Midrash

Reference: 9:9

Title: Leviticus Rabbah

Commentary:

These passages from a fifth-century midrash use earlier tannaitic material, such as Sifre Numbers 42 (part two) to further develop the topic of the significance of peace, using the phrase “Great is peace, for…” Like this section of the Sifre, our midrash engages with a variety of biblical verses to prove that peace, or shalom in Hebrew, is important for every aspect of life: between husband and wife, between brothers, among the people of Israel and even among heavenly creatures. Leviticus Rabbah not only utilizes earlier midrashic units, but also provides new insights. As we shall see, it especially emphasizes that peace is also important in the world to come, and the anointed king or the messianic king proclaims peace upon his arrival.

Peace played an important role in the Hebrew Bible, in early Christianity and within Roman imperial ideology. As Christopher J. Fuhrmann puts it, “Diverse voices produced a rhetoric of imperial peace, and anyone who handled a coin stamped pax or concordia was exposed to it” (Policing the Roman Empire, p. 89, see also the commentary on 1 Thessalonians 5:3). Rome, and especially the emperor, were presented as bringing peace to the empire. This peace, the Pax Romana, was secured by military power and a legal system (Wengst, Pax Romana, p. 14, 37, 42). While the tannaitic peace midrashim were produced under Roman rule, Leviticus Rabbah was produced when the empire became Christian. However, like the tannaitic midrashim, Leviticus Rabbah’s discussion of peace does not mention Rome, nor does it explicitly refer to Christianity. Thus, scholars who have studied these sources have usually ignored this context. In my opinion, the fact that this midrash (as well as the other earlier peace midrashim) does not mention Rome is significant. In what follows, I will examine whether this passage from Leviticus Rabbah includes a latent dialogue with the Roman and Christian concepts of peace and whether these concepts influenced the rabbinic thinking about shalom.

Section A cites Rabbi Shimon ben Yohai, a fourth generation tanna who was active in the middle of the second century, especially after the Bar Kokhba revolt. According to this teaching, the greatness of peace is indicated in that all other blessings are included in it; namely, peace is an umbrella blessing which includes all the other blessings under it. It is not clear, however, how Psalms 29:11 proves this point: “The Lord will give strength (‘oz) to his people! The Lord will bless his people with peace!” (NRSV). In rabbinic texts, the Hebrew word ‘oz which originally denotes strength usually refers to the Torah. But here this link is not explicitly made. According to Galit Hasan-Rokem, the verse is used to emphasize “that peace is the real basis for strength” (Tales of the Neighborhood, p. 62).

Section B presents two teachings from Ḥizqiya. There are two amoraim with this name, one from the first generation and one from the fourth. Since the adjacent teachings are attributed to tannaim and first generation amoraim, it seems that the midrash refers to a first generation amora who was active in the first half of the third century. According to the first teaching, all of the mitzvot are included in peace. The Hebrew (and Aramaic) term mitzvah can be rendered as “good deeds,” “commandments,” or “religious requirements.” Here, Ḥizqiya explains that while in other mitzvot or religious requirements, if one has the opportunity, he is required to observe such religious requirements, and when peace is concerned one should pursue opportunities to bring it. At least the first two examples are significant, since they address restoring the lost property of one’s enemy or hater. Such acts may restore the peace between the two parties. In any case, the message is that one should seek peace.

In his second teaching, Ḥizqiya looks at the language that describes the journeys of the Israelites. While usually the verbs used are in plural, when the Israelites arrive at Mount Sinai, the verb is in the singular form, indicating that they were united and there was no dissension among them. This state of unity led God to give them the Torah there. In this case peace means concord among the Israelites. This teaching proves the greatness of peace since it led God to give the Torah to Israel. Following Stefan Weinstock, Greg Woolf presents two aspects of the imperial ideology of peace: “pax at home depending on concordia, between the orders as well as among the elite, and pax abroad in the sense of an unequal peace between Rome and those she had pacified,” moreover, pax “represents the unity of the Roman people” (“Roman peace,” p. 177, 178; Weinstock, “Pax,” p. 45). In our midrash, this unity of the people of Israel is defined as peace.

Section C cites three teachings from Bar Qapara who was active during the first decades of the third century. The first teaching that appears through an anonymous voice in Sifre Numbers 42 (part two) discusses the difference between Sarah’s words in Genesis 18:12: “So Sarah laughed to herself, saying, ‘After I have grown old, and my husband is old, shall I have pleasure?’” (NRSV) and Genesis 18:13: “And the Lord said to Abraham, ‘Why did Sarah laugh, saying, Shall I surely bear a child, since I am old?’” According to the midrash, peace is so great that Scripture spoke lies in the Torah section of the Tanakh in order to preserve the peace between Abraham and Sarah. The second teaching provides an example from the Prophets section of the Tanakh. Here again the issue is peace between a husband and a wife: Samson’s parents. While the wife is defined as “barren” (“Although you are barren, having borne no children, you shall conceive and bear a son,” Judges 13:3, based on NRSV), these words are not said to the husband. Despite the opening statement that mentions lies, it seems that the issue in that example is omission. In any case, concord between husband and wife is defined as peace. The greatness of peace is proven by the fact that the husband was not told that his wife was barren. The third teaching attributed to Bar Qapara appears in Sifre Numbers 42 (part two) through an anonymous voice. This teaching uses an argument a fortiori to prove the greatness of peace. We learn that heavenly creatures need peace from Job 25:2: “He makes peace in His high places” (NKJV). Therefore, if heavenly creatures need peace then earthly creatures need it even more.

Section D cites Rabban Shimon ben Gamliel who was active in the second century, especially after the Bar Kokhba revolt. The greatness of peace is demonstrated by the argument that Scripture spoke lies in the Torah section of the Tanakh in order to preserve peace between Joseph and his brothers. This claim is based on Genesis 50:15-17: “Realizing that their father was dead, Joseph’s brothers said, ‘What if Joseph still bears a grudge against us and pays us back in full for all the wrong that we did to him?’ So they approached Joseph, saying, “Your father gave this instruction before he died, “Say to Joseph: I beg you, forgive the crime of your brothers and the wrong they did in harming you.” Now therefore please forgive the crime of the servants of the God of your father” (NRSV). The midrash then adds that Jacob did not instruct the brothers to say something. Thus, the greatness of peace among brothers is proved by the fact that Scripture lied in order to preserve it.

Section E sites Rabbi Yosi. There are several sages with this name and it is not clear to whom the midrash refers. This teaching that appears through an anonymous voice in Sifre Numbers 42 (part two) cites Deuteronomy 20:10: “When you draw near to a town to fight against it, offer it terms of peace” to prove that even in war, peace is required. The example illustrates that such peace includes giving the opportunity for the city you approach to surrender. Thus, the greatness of peace is proven by the fact that even during war peace is required.

Section F cites Rabbi Yudan bar Yosef, who is otherwise unknown, yet it may refer to Rabbi Yudan who was a fourth generation amora active in the fourth century. According to his teaching, which appears through an anonymous voice in Sifre Numbers 42 (part two), the greatness of peace is proved by the fact that one of God’s names is peace. As I demonstrated in the commentary on the Sifre, the idea that shalom is also one of God’s names is novel, and does not appear in the Hebrew Bible. I offer the possibility that naming God shalom may be related to the existence of the goddess of peace in both Greek and Roman religions, as an implicit response to Roman imperial ideology according to which Rome brings eternal peace to the empire: Pax is the Roman goddess of peace, and Eirēnē is the Greek goddess of peace. Moreover, peace was an important element in the Christian Church, where Christ was the one who brought peace to the world. Real peace is to be achieved only within the Church (see more in the commentary on Sifre Numbers 42 [part two]). So, for example, Ephrem writes to Christ “Your wind of mercy blew; the ships set straight out from the raging sea to the harbor of peace” (Hymns of Virginity, 31:15, translation from McVey, Ephrem, p. 401). In this Hymn the ships are the Church which brings humans to “the harbor of peace.” Moreover, by the fifth century, at least one Church father claimed that Christ was named peace: “And what can we say that is worthy of Peace, which is the name of Christ? For concerning Christ Paul spoke, saying, ‘He is our Peace, Who has made us both one’ [Eph. 2:14]. … Just as before an imperial arrival the streets are cleaned and the colonnades are crowned with beautiful decorations, so that nothing may appear unworthy of the imperial gaze, so at the approach of Christ, the King of Peace, everything distressful has departed from our path. The truth shines forth, and falsehood has fled! Harmony shines forth, and discord has fled! Just as often the best of painters, wishing to illustrate unity of spirit, place behind kings or brothers who are magistrates Concord, in the form of a woman, embracing with both her arms those who are unified—in order to show that those divided in body are united in thought—so the peace of Christ unifies by its embrace those who stand apart, and thus the saying of the prophet is fulfilled in us, ‘And there will be a council of peace between them’ [Zech. 6:13]” (Severian, On Peace 1; quoted from Ando, Imperial Ideology, p. 272).

In the context of fifth-century Christian Rome, calling God peace was loaded with meaning. The midrash presents God as the real and only God of peace, offering peace outside this Christian framework. The midrash continues to cite Rabbi Tanḥum bar Yudan, an amora whose time is not known. His statement includes halakhic implications; it is prohibited to greet a fellow or ask about his well-being in a filthy place, since the word shalom is holy.

Section G returns to the issue of peace between a husband and wife, citing Rabbi Ishmael, a third generation tanna who was active in the second century. The same teaching appears through an anonymous voice in Sifre Numbers 42 (part two) (see the commentary on this text for an explanation of this teaching). After this teaching appears a long story (which is not presented here) about how Rabbi Meir was ready to receive insult (spitting) in order to bring peace between a husband and a wife, like God agrees that His holy name will be erased by water in order to bring that peace between husband and wife (more on this narrative in Hasan-Rokem, Tales of the Neighborhood, p. 55-85). I also skip here another teaching that describes how God created the world while preserving peace between the heavens and what is below.

Section H cites Rabbi Levi, a third generation amora who was active around the end of the third century. Two sages transmit his teaching: Rabbi Mani (or Mana) of She’ab a third or fourth generation amora who was active in the first half of the fourth century, and Rabbi Yehoshua of Sikhnin, a fourth generation amora who was active in the first half of the fourth century. For Rabbi Levi the greatness of peace is proven by the fact that all blessings, benefactions and consolations that God confers upon Israel are concluded by peace. The idea that all blessings are concluded with peace appears in Sifre Numbers 42 (part two) in the name of Rabbi Eleazar. Rabbi Levi develops this idea, adding that sacrificial offerings also conclude with peace. He based his claim on the verses that refer to “offerings of well-being (shlamim),” based on the fact that these offerings are called shlamim. While it is not clear that originally these offerings were related to well-being or peace, this link exists already in the Septuagint that renders the word shlamim sometimes as “offering for salvation,” but sometimes as “offering for peace.” Rabbi Levi states that this peace is pertinent to both this world and the world to come, using Isaiah 66:12: “Behold, I will extend peace to her (to Jerusalem) like a river’ (based on NKJV) that addresses the world to come. Here, and also in the next section (I), Leviticus Rabbah emphasizes the importance of peace in Israel’s deliverance.

Section I presents a teaching that has no parallel in tannaitic texts. According to this teaching, which is attributed to the sages as a group, when the anointed king (or the Messiah king) will come he will open or begin with peace. This teaching is based on Isaiah 52:7: “How beautiful upon the mountains are the feet of the messenger who announces peace, who brings good news, who announces salvation, who says to Zion, ‘Your God reigns’” (NKJV). This teaching articulates hope and certainty that Israel will be delivered by a king. While Rome, at that period Christian Rome, is not mentioned, it is clear that this new kingdom will take its place bringing real peace to the world. While both Rome and Christianity present themselves as bringing eternal peace, the sages in Late Antiquity offered their own version of peace. In the fifth century this notion was not limited to the rabbis. So, for example, a few fifth century epitaphs from Zoar, today Gohr es-Safi, Jordan, on the eastern-southern shore of the Dead Sea, are concluded with the phrase: “May he wake up to the voice of the announcer of peace” (Wilfand, “Aramaic Tombstones”). Interestingly, both our midrash chapter and these epitaphs conclude with a similar idea, using a similar verse, following the idea that all blessings and prayers are sealed or concluded with peace. Moreover, by the fifth century, the Hebrew word shalom, appears as a visual symbol on Jewish epitaphs around the Mediterranean, in synagogues and other Jewish settings. In Zoar, for example, the word appears on almost every Jewish tombstone starting from 386, not only as part of the inscription, but also as part of the decoration (Wilfand, “Aramaic Tombstones,” p. 518-519; Meimaris, Kritikakou-Nikolaropulou and Brock, Inscriptions). The word also appears on Latin and Greek epitaphs in which usually only the word “peace” in Hebrew appears at the bottom of the tombstone or the end of the inscription (for example, Corpus inscriptionum, III, p. 42, 45, 52-53, 57, 60 [in both Greek and Hebrew], 62, 74, 101, 109, 111, 116, 119, 121, 134).

While the word shalom holds many meanings and is important in many elements of life, according to sections H and I of Leviticus Rabbah, real eternal peace is not delivered by Rome nor by Christ or his supporters, nor will it be found in the Church, but rather it will be brought about by God through the anointed king, the king Messiah. In my opinion, this Christian-Roman context should be taken into account when one reads this midrash and when one looks at the evolution of shalom as a visual symbol around the Mediterranean.